by James Trevelyan, University of Western Australia I visited Egypt, Jordan and Lebanon in September and October 1999 to learn about mine clearance techniques being used in the Middle East (Trevelyan 2000). This paper summarizes some of my observations and suggestions for further developments. The Egyptian Government, in particular, regards landmine and UXO contamination as a sensitive issue. For this reason, it is not possible to present a detailed discussion of Egyptian problems.
Mine and UXO Problems in Egypt The Egyptian Military Engineering Organization (MEO) is responsible for all mine clearance work in the country, reporting to the Egyptian Army and Ministry of Defense. I arranged the visit through the Egyptian Government, the Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade and the Night Vision and Electronic Sensors Directorate of the US Army at Fort Belvoir, Virginia. My only field visit was to the Western Desert area near El Alamein. Information on other areas was provided by the Military Engineering Organization, and several other sources. Egypt has been listed as the country most contaminated by landmines in the world with an estimate of approximately 23,000,000. This includes UXO and the number of landmines is much less than this. However, the number of devices that need to be removed is not a useful indication of the magnitude of the problem. Tourist, agricultural and irrigation development projects in Egypt are significantly constrained by mine and UXO contamination and, in the affected areas, the civilian casualty rate seems high in proportion to the populations in those areas. (No precise figures were available to the author.) The old age of much of the UXO may result in greater risk of spontaneous or accidental detonation, so it is not useful to consider the mine and UXO problems separately. There are very large areas of land affected, and some estimates put the total area at 25,000 sq kilometers. Origin and distribution of contamination During the second World War (called the second International War in Egypt) Britain and its allies conducted a series of military campaigns to defend themselves and the vital Suez Canal from several invasion attempts by German and Italian forces. Most of the fighting was along the northern fringe of the Western Desert between the Qatara Depression and the Mediterranean Sea, between 1941 and 1943. The well-known battle at El Alamein was only one of many. A wide coastal strip is affected by mines and UXO, all the way to the Libyan border (and beyond). In 1956, Israeli forces invaded the Sinai Peninsula and advanced almost to the Suez Canal in a joint operation inspired by Britain and France to attempt to recover the recently nationalized canal. British and French troops occupied the canal zone in the face of vigorous Egyptian resistance. Shortly afterwards, Israeli, British and French troops were withdrawn under strong international pressure. In 1967, Israel again invaded the Sinai Peninsula in a pre-emptive strike. Egyptian and Israeli forces confronted each other along the canal zone, with extensive intermittent bombardments between them. In October 1973 Egyptian forces fought a more successful campaign but Israeli forces continue to occupy practically all of the Sinai peninsula. Following extensive negotiations, Israeli forces withdrew from Sinai to the current border. In 1979 Egypt and Israel signed a treaty (Camp David Accords) which has ushered in a new era of peace and cooperation. Apart from the large Western Desert area, there are mine and UXO contamination problems along the Suez Canal zone, across the Sinai Peninsula and along parts of the Red Sea coast. Most of the remaining contamination is in the Suez Canal zone, and nearby coastal regions. Much of the contamination in the coastal region is in salt lakes, salty mud and swamps which are difficult to work in. The local environment is very unpleasant for manual work with high summer temperatures, high humidity and salty dust on windy days. Other mines lie under deep wind-blown sand as in the Western Desert. Social Impact Until recently the only major social impact has been on nomadic (Bedouin) people who are mostly very poor and live on the socio-economic fringe in Egypt. However, the development of the tourism industry in the 1980’s and 1990’s is bringing new wealth to the upper classes of Egypt. The Mediterranean Sea coast is warm and has a very comfortable year-round climate, particularly in summer. Development is taking place along most of this coastline. This development is creating a new demand for adjacent land for irrigated agriculture and recreation. Because of this, the nomadic Bedouin are being pushed into yet more contaminated land. Therefore, mine clearance has recently become more important for the government. Similarly, recreation tourism along the Gulf of Suez and Red Sea coasts is creating a demand for improved port facilities and clearance of coastal land. The Egyptian government, like many poorer countries, has a hard time raising tax revenues and faces strong political pressure to invest in infrastructure for large population centres such as Cairo and Alexandria. At the present time, there seem to be limited prospects for channeling some of the huge financial investments along the coast towards demining projects. Current Solutions The Egyptian Army has
Col. Mahrous, (Rt) Commanding
Officer, Engineers Brigade responsible for demining Alamein
area, exchanging gifts with author. The procedures are changed from time
to time, and are adapted for local conditions. Quality assurance has been performed
with tanks equipped with American mine rollers. However, this is now
considered too dangerous after several large unexploded bombs were
found. Problems with Current
Solutions For an Army which has developed mine
field breeching methods, the prospect of demining thousands of
square kilometers of wind-blown desert and salt marsh is a huge
challenge. The major problem is that the cost
required to achieve a ‘satsfactory’ level of clearance is too great.
Appeals to Britain and Italy have yielded little assistance so far.
Germany has been more generous: in 1998 the German Government provided
about 100 modern detectors (Föster 4400) and offered to try the ‘MineBreaker’
machine in the Western Desert. The US Government contributed US $500,000
in 1999 for training and some equipment such as mine rollers. Most minefield problems are seen by
the Army engineers in terms of detection. They need better ways to
detect and locate mines and UXO in deep sand and mud. Once the ordnance
has been located, neutralisation or destruction is well within their
capacity. However, lower cost solutions might come from looking at the
problem differently. One approach might be to look at alternatives such
as processing the soil to remove mines and UXO using modern sand mining
techniques used in many countries. Western Desert Problems Each region of Egypt has special
technical problems. The principal technical problems in the Western
Desert are: • Wind blown sand burying mines
and fragments up to 2 meters deep in places, though mostly less than
that. • High fragment density in many
areas. • Age of mines - up to 60 years. Perhaps the most exciting find
for deminers in the Jordan valley lies here at
Bethany-in-Jordan: it is now recognized as the most likely place
for the baptism of Jesus Christ. Deminers found stones and part
of a mosaic floor. After the mines were carefully removed,
archaeologists moved in and excavated a complex of water
treatment facilities, chapels and even a flagstone covering a
human head. The site is due to be opened to the public in time
for the millenium celebrations. Dr. Mahommad in the photograph
is the chief archaeologist responsible for identifying and
excavating the site. • Unknown, or partially known
location of mine fields. • Many, large and sometimes
unstable UXO’s distributed across area, many UXO’s considered to
be more dangerous than the mines. Salt Mud Problems The principal technical problems in
the Suez Canal and coastal areas are: • Mines and UXO lie in gray mud
that is either occasionally or daily flooded by salt water. Mines may
lie on surface or deep under mud surface. • The mud is extremely difficult
to traverse. Feet either sink right in, or slip sideways. • High fragment density in many
areas. • Age of mines - up to 45 years. • Unknown, or partially known
location of minefields. • Many, large and sometimes
unstable UXO’s distributed across area, many UXO’s considered to
be more dangerous than the mines. Sinai Problems The principal technical problems in
the Sinai Desert are: • Medium and low metal content
mines. Egyptians refer to PMN mine as minimum metal, though it
contains much more metal than many other mines. • Wind blown sand burying mines
and fragments up to 2 meters deep in places, though mostly less than
that. • High fragment density in many
areas. • Age of mines - up to 45 years. • Unknown, or partially known
location of mine fields. Many, large and sometimes unstable UXO’s
distributed across area, many UXO’s considered to be more dangerous
than the mines. Mine and UXO
Contamination Problems in Jordan In terms of the value
of the affected land, the most immediate problem for Jordan is the
Jordan valley where a large number of mine fields were laid, mostly
before and during the Arab-Israeli conflict of 1967. These were prepared
along the lower part of the Jordan flood plain, and along the lower East
slopes of the valley. The mines were used to strengthen defenses along
the valley as Jordan was anticipating an Israeli invasion across the
Jordan river. In later years there were periods of
artillery bombardment exchanged between Jordanian and Israeli positions
across the river. These exchanges have left a large number of UXO among
the defensive positions, and shell fragments distributed over some of
the mine fields. There are two major zones: the
northern Jordan valley near lake Tiberias (Sea of Gallilee) and southern
Jordan valley near Amman and the Dead Sea. Since the mines were laid there have
been flash floods down the sides of the valley and the Jordan river has
also flooded several times. Mines have been moved. Mostly, the movement
is only a few meters. However, mines have been found floating on the
dense salt water of the dead sea, and one swimmer is reported to have
lost a hand from a mine. The next most serious problem lies
along the Yarmuk river where there are strong fortifications designed to
resist an attack from the north. I met land holders who had land taken
from them in order to prepare the defenses and lay mine fields, and who
now know of mines which have been washed onto their land by floodwaters. The third area is the Araba valley
which extends from the southern end of the Dead Sea in a straight line
due south to Aqaba and Eliat at the head of the Red Sea. Mines were laid
here by Israeli forces during the 1967 conflict. Until recently, the
Jordanian government expected Israel to clear these minefields. However,
the Army Engineers expect they will have to clear them "sooner or
later". Casualties The number of casualties is quite
small compared with other countries affected by mines. In the last 30
years, about 470 people have been killed or injured according to military
statistics, of whom 280 were military personnel (140 were deminers), and
the rest civilians. (Egset and Hammad, 1999). Because there is no formal
procedure for medical services to report landmine incidents, the actual
figure is probably higher, but less than 900. Most casualties occur in the Jordan
and Yarmuk river valleys. A few occur in the south, but the problem in
the Araba valley (Wadi Araba) seems to be declining. Jordanian Mine field
Clearance Methods Minefield clearance
methods, for the most part, follow entirely different procedures from
those used in other countries. Jordanian deminers enjoy the unique
advantage that they laid their own minefields, and most were laid to
precise patterns learned from British Army instructors. The minefield
locations are accurately known and marked with steel marker posts which
remain in the ground. However, they also have a large number of M14
anti-personnel mines which are about the hardest mines to locate because
of their tiny metal content and small size. A plaster lined baptism pool,
with a column base in the foreground. The location of the column
is not yet known. Not all mine fields follow this
pattern, however, some were laid under fire, and at night, and thus may
be poorly marked and recorded. Others (in the Araba valley) were laid by
invading forces and their locations are poorly known and most seem to be
unmarked. Clearance starts by locating the steel
marker posts. Deminers then clear the central (safe) lane by probing and
digging if necessary, locating the larger anti-tank mines. Then the
smaller anti-personnel mines are located. Typically 80-90 percent of the
mines are located in this way and destroyed by burning out the
explosive. After manual clearance, Aardvark flail
machines are used, clearing a strip wider than the original minefield.
Each detonation is recorded, adding to the number of mines destroyed.
Originally, six Mk 1 Aadvark machines were in use. Two Mk 2 machines
were being used, and two Mk 4 machines were expected to be in use. The
older Mk 1 machines were being upgraded. The number of mines originally laid is
generally known precisely. Some were accounted for by accidental
explosions (wild animals) and these were sometimes recorded by troops
watching that sector. However, there are usually still a few mines
unaccounted for at this stage. The next step is to drive bulldozers
backwards and forwards across the mine field, again watching to see if
any further detonations occur. If mines are still unaccounted for, the
top 15 cm of sand is cut away by bulldozers, screened and replaced. If there are still "too
many" missing mines after this step, an equivalent area on the
downhill side of the minefield is treated with the Aardvark flail and
bulldozers. The land is then released. According
to the military, if there are unaccounted mines, the land remains fenced
and signed with danger signs. However, I was shown a letter informing
the land holder which only states that "demining operations have
been completed". This was in response to a request to certify that
the land is free of mines. The land in question is on the slopes of the
Jordan valley above the King Abdullah canal, and has deep erosion
gullies, with rocks and hard silt soil, and little vegetation to
stabilize the soil. I could appreciate that finding all the small M14
anti-personnel mines after 30 years in that terrain would be almost
impossible. Mines could easily have been washed into gullies and lie
deeply buried under eroded material, or washed downstream. The difficulty now is that many of the
remaining minefields have mines which are too deeply buried for
mechanical clearance, and digging by hand is the only way to ensure
clearance. Jordan Valley Mine
fields The climate in the
Jordan valley is oppressively hot and humid, and work is suspended for
two months at the height of summer. Temperatures above 35 degrees are
normal. High temperatures have affected the plastic materials used in
some of the mines making them possibly more dangerous to handle. The types of mines where were used
are: • M14 (American) - a small AP mine
containing very small metal components which makes it extremely
difficult to detect with normal metal detectors, even if it is just
below the surface. Newer detectors can detect this mine at depths of 6
- 12 cm. • M19 (American) - an AT mine
using similar fuse mechanism to the M14 and therefore just as
difficult to detect. • Mk 5 (British) - an old AT mine
with a metal case which is easy to detect, but can be dangerous to
handle when corroded. • SACI - an older plastic AT mine
which comes in several versions. This can be very dangerous when the
materials of the mine have decayed. The next sequence of photographs shows
what the Jordanians regard as their major problem. A series of
minefields in river flood plains have accumulated silt and sand as a
result of floodwaters flowing through surface vegetation which grows
because people stay away from the minefields. This accumulation has
buried the mines to a depth of 1 meter or more. In this particular
example, a team of 20 men have worked for 8 months to clear about 30
meters of minefield (along the center line), with a width of about 8
meters. If we assume that the cost of deminers is about US$150 per
month, with 100 percent charge for supervision, equipment support,
accommodation and other costs, this has cost nearly $50,000. This
roughly corresponds to a cost of US$200 per square meter. Suggestions for
Improvements in Both Countries Current mine and UXO
clearance methods are slow and expensive. It is now clear that there
will be no short or even medium term improvements in detection
technology. However, there are many possibilities for improvement by
looking at the problem in different ways. Significant funding support
would be needed within military demining organizations in both countries
to support innovation and change. Outside agencies could assist in
making such funding available. Mine Detection Dogs In my opinion, of all the technologies
considered, mine detection dogs offer the best chance of significant
improvements in clearance production rate and quality level. Because of
cultural sensitivities and cost factors, the most attractive options to
pursue this are: • A trial of Afghan or Iraqi mine
detection dogs (with handlers) in Jordan, Sinai Desert and Western
Desert areas of Egypt. Iraqi handlers would be able to communicate in
Arabic. Afghan handlers have more experience and a common religious
background. Such a trial should be coordinated with similar trials in
Yemen, Lebanon and Jordan where similar problems exist and dogs could
make effective contributions. • Investigate whether sufficient
dog capacity exists in the Cairo Police Academy, Egyptian Customs and
counter-terrorist organizations to build an indigenous mine detection
dog capacity. Aerial Photography Although the officers I met claimed
they had tried aerial photography, I think that the techniques
demonstrated by ITC in the Netherlands should be evaluated. It is likely
that the Egyptian air force has the necessary equipment and capability.
Aerial photography would show where there is little or no sand cover and
clearance teams can work without the need for detection equipment. It is
possible that sand cover may change during the year, so repeated
photographic surveys may be useful. High precision GPS registration of
photographs will be essential as there are no permanent landmarks in
most areas. Special detectors for deeply buried
mines By using a larger diameter coil on a
metal detector, the detection depth can be increased almost in
proportion to the coil size. Detector manufacturers need to be
approached to see if they will provide optional large diameter metal
detector coils. Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) could
be evaluated for special detection problems in deep sand, particularly
in the Western Desert of Egypt where mines have metal cases. It may be possible to use ultrasonic
imaging technology to detect the deeply buried mines that are causing
problems in wet marshland and mud. Considerable experimentation may be
needed. However, these mines are currently very expensive to clear (in
terms of time, machinery and manpower) and improving location ability
may help to reduce costs. Slurry Pumping and Water Jets There is the possibility that water
jets and slurry pumping technologies used in modern sand and slurry
mining operations in countries such as Malaysia and Australia could be
useful for mine and UXO clearance tasks. The cost of treatment is
surprisingly low. The cost of moving the soil with this mining method is
between US$0-17 and $0-40 per ton of material removed. Assuming that,
on average, about 1 meter of material needs to be removed from the
surface layer of the minefield, this works out to a cost range of
US$0-35 to US$0-80 per square meter. The cost will depend on many
factors, and dealing with surface vegetation will require some
ingenuity, but these costs are far less than existing techniques. The
major operating cost is electricity to drive the pumping machinery.
These figures are based on electricity at US$0-055 per kilowatt hour
which is typical for a remote installation. Long Term Research In the longer term, careful research
is likely to result in large cost savings in the demining program. Apart
from slurry and water jet technologies, research into the manipulation
of wind for removing sand cover and into risk factors for civilians is
likely to substantially reduce operational costs. Regional Cooperation Since there are extensive mine and UXO
clearance problems in most of the countries in the region, there could
be extensive benefits from regional cooperation, especially for
countries trying to provide cost-effective assistance. This could best
be achieved by being sensitive to the political and cultural differences
in the region. Demining Machinery The MEO said they were considering the
use of demining. Machines such as ‘Minebreaker’ have been used
extensively in Croatia and more recently in Bosnia, but expert users are
cautious about recommending them except for vegetation clearance (not a
problem in Egypt). Aadvark Flails are being used in Jordan in the final
stages of mine clearance to neutralize mines which have not been located
by manual deminers. All demining machines have failed to achieve their
makers’ expectations, except in certain limited circumstances. The particular problems of demining in
Egypt have made me extremely cautious about the use of large machines of
this type. The variable depths of mines under
wind blown sand (many areas more than half a meter) make these machines
of doubtful effectiveness for mine clearance. They can be expensive to
operate (approx US$0-50 per sq meter) with high maintenance costs,
particularly if mines and UXO are detonated by the machine. Evidence
from other countries shows that the presence of rock or large stones
greatly reduces the effectiveness of mechanical clearance. However, in the long term, using
mechanical clearance could be an effective means of risk reduction
where manual demining (or other methods) cannot be used. However, this
can only be effective with careful research and evaluation of the risks,
costs to reduce risks, degree of risk reduction actually achieved, and
the relative effects of spending funds on other ways to reduce risk to
health. Wind In dry sandy areas, it may be possible
to control sand movement to selectively remove sand cover from
contaminated sites over a period of time. This would allow visual
inspection and easy removal of mines and UXO. However, research and
experimentation is needed to explore these methods. Avenues for Real Improvement Most of the engineering staff working
on mine and UXO clearance in Jordan and Egypt are not fluent in English,
nor are there reference works in Arabic on recent developments in mine
and UXO clearance. The lack of reference material in
Arabic seems to be a major impediment towards progress in reducing
costs. Further, we have found that translating the reports on which this
article is based has not been possible without an intimate understanding
of the field. For this reason, we are in the process
of exploring a scholarship scheme that would enable engineers to study
part-time for research Masters degree qualifications in engineering.
This would build a collection of literature in Arabic, as well as
English, on problems and possible solutions. Acknowledgements The principal support
for this visit came from the Egyptian Ministry of Defense and Military
Engineering Organization, and the Royal Jordanian Army Engineers, who
contributed the time and enthusiasm of the many dedicated officers
responsible for demining in Egypt. Support from the Military Liaison
staff at the United States Embassy in Amman also helped. Financial support for this research is
provided by the Night Vision and Electronic Sensors Directorate of the
US Army, private donations to the University of Western Australia, and a
study leave travel grant from the University of Western Australia. My
visit to Egypt could not have been so comprehensive without the support
and encouragement of staff at the Australian Embassy, Cairo. Thanks are
also due to many other sources who informally contributed background
information, and to Dr. Samina Yasmeen for her understanding of the
subtleties of Middle Eastern politics. References Military Engineering
Organization, Egyptian Ministry of Defence, Interviews by author,
October 1999. Royal Jordanian Army Engineers,
Interviews by author, October 1999. Egset, W., and Hammad, S. (1999)
Landmine Victims in Jordan: A Needs Assessment Study, Norwegian Peoples
Aid, Fafo Institute for Applied Social Science, Norway, ISSN 0804-5135. Trevelyan, J. P. (2000). Technology
Needs for Mine Clearance in Egypt and Jordan. Reports available from the
author on request. *All photos courtesy of the author. Contact Information James Trevelyan Tel: 61-08-9380-3057 |
